The administrative system of the Mughal Empire represents one of the most sophisticated and centralized governance frameworks in medieval Indian history. Developed primarily under Akbar and refined by his successors, it combined elements of Persian bureaucratic traditions, Turko-Mongol military organization, and indigenous Indian practices. The Mughal administrative structure was designed to ensure political stability, efficient revenue extraction, and imperial control over vast territories.
1. Nature and Features of Mughal Administration
The Mughal administration was characterized by:
(a) Centralization of Power
The Emperor was the supreme authority in all matters—executive, legislative, and judicial. The empire functioned as a highly centralized polity, though local officials enjoyed limited autonomy.
(b) Bureaucratic Organization
A well-defined administrative hierarchy ensured governance across different levels—central, provincial, and local.
(c) Military-Cum-Civil System
Civil and military roles often overlapped. The administrative machinery was closely tied to the army through the Mansabdari system.
(d) Secular and Inclusive Governance
Particularly under Akbar, the administration incorporated diverse religious and ethnic groups, including Rajputs and Indian Muslims.
2. The Emperor: The Pivot of Administration
The Mughal Emperor was the fountainhead of all authority.
Powers:
- Head of the state and government
- Supreme commander of the army
- Final authority in judicial matters
- Chief law-maker (within the framework of Islamic law)
Under rulers like Akbar, the emperor emphasized Sulh-i-Kul (universal tolerance), which shaped administrative inclusiveness. However, under Aurangzeb, governance became more orthodox and centralized around Islamic principles.
3. Central Administration
The central administration was divided into several departments, each headed by a high-ranking official.
(a) Wazir / Diwan (Finance Minister)
- Head of revenue and finance
- Maintained accounts of income and expenditure
- Supervised land revenue administration
(b) Mir Bakshi (Military Head)
- Responsible for recruitment, organization, and payment of the army
- Maintained records of mansabdars
(c) Sadr-us-Sudur (Religious Affairs)
- Managed religious endowments (waqf)
- Supervised Islamic law and charities
(d) Qazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Judge)
- Head of judiciary
- Administered justice according to Islamic law
(e) Khan-i-Saman
- In charge of royal household and state workshops (karkhanas)
(f) Muhtasib
- Ensured public morality
- Enforced Islamic codes of conduct
4. Provincial Administration (Suba System)
The empire was divided into provinces called Subas, introduced during Akbar’s reign.
Structure of Provincial Administration:
Each Suba had the following officials:
(a) Subedar (Governor)
- Head of the province
- Maintained law and order
- Implemented imperial orders
(b) Diwan
- Controlled revenue administration in the province
- Worked independently of the Subedar to check misuse of power
(c) Bakshi
- Supervised provincial military organization
(d) Qazi
- Administered justice
(e) Sadr
- Managed religious institutions
Key Feature:
The division of power between Subedar and Diwan ensured a system of checks and balances.
5. Local Administration
(a) Sarkar Level
- Headed by Faujdar (military officer)
- Maintained law and order
(b) Pargana Level
- Administered by:
- Shiqdar – Law and order
- Amil – Revenue collection
- Qanungo – Maintained land records
(c) Village Administration
- The smallest unit
- Managed by:
- Muqaddam (village headman)
- Patwari (record keeper)
Observation:
Village administration retained considerable autonomy and continuity from pre-Mughal times.
6. Mansabdari System
The Mansabdari system, introduced by Akbar, was the backbone of Mughal administration.
Features:
- Every official was assigned a mansab (rank)
- Rank determined:
- Salary
- Military responsibility
- Status in court
Dual Rank System:
- Zat – Personal rank
- Sawar – Cavalry obligation
Functions:
- Ensured loyalty of nobles
- Maintained a strong military force
- Integrated civil and military administration
Critical Analysis:
- Promoted merit-based appointments
- Prevented hereditary feudalism
However: - Led to heavy financial burden
- Became corrupt and inefficient in later periods
7. Jagirdari System
Closely linked to the Mansabdari system, the Jagirdari system involved assignment of land revenue rights.
Key Features:
- Mansabdars were paid through Jagirs (revenue assignments)
- Jagirdars collected revenue but did not own land
Types of Jagirs:
- Tankha Jagir – Given in lieu of salary
- Mashrut Jagir – Conditional grants
Issues:
- Frequent transfers led to exploitation of peasants
- Jagirdari crisis in later Mughal period weakened the empire
8. Revenue Administration
The Mughal revenue system was highly organized and systematic.
(a) Land Revenue as Main Source
- Primary source of income
- Based on agricultural output
(b) Revenue Reforms under Akbar
Developed by Raja Todar Mal:
Zabti System:
- Measurement of land
- Assessment based on average yield and prices
Dahsala System:
- Average produce of last 10 years considered
- Provided stability in revenue demand
Classification of Land:
- Polaj – Cultivated regularly
- Parauti – Fallow temporarily
- Chachar – Fallow for 3-4 years
- Banjar – Uncultivated
Evaluation:
- Scientific and rational system
- Reduced exploitation (initially)
- Later became rigid and oppressive
9. Judicial Administration
Features:
- Based on Islamic law (Sharia)
- Emperor was the highest judicial authority
Structure:
- Qazi – Administered justice
- Mufti – Interpreted law
- Kotwal – Maintained law and order in cities
Characteristics:
- No uniform civil code
- Hindu customs often respected in civil matters
10. Military Administration
The Mughal army was a key pillar of administration.
Components:
- Cavalry (most important)
- Infantry
- Artillery
- Navy (limited role)
Features:
- No permanent standing army
- Relied on Mansabdars
Strengths:
- Strong cavalry and artillery
Weaknesses:
- Lack of discipline
- Dependence on nobles
11. Administrative Policies of Important Rulers
(a) Akbar
- Established strong centralized administration
- Introduced Mansabdari and revenue reforms
- Promoted religious tolerance
(b) Jahangir
- Continued Akbar’s policies
- Focused on justice (e.g., Chain of Justice)
(c) Shah Jahan
- Maintained administrative efficiency
- Period of stability and prosperity
(d) Aurangzeb
- Centralization increased
- Religious orthodoxy impacted inclusiveness
- Administrative strain due to continuous wars
12. Strengths of Mughal Administration
- Strong central authority ensured stability
- Efficient revenue system
- Integration of diverse regions and communities
- Well-organized bureaucracy
- Merit-based appointments (initially)
13. Weaknesses of Mughal Administration
- Over-centralization led to dependency on the emperor
- Corruption and inefficiency in later periods
- Jagirdari crisis and agrarian distress
- Weak local governance
- Military decline and lack of modernization
14. Decline of Mughal Administration
The administrative system began to decline after the reign of Aurangzeb due to:
- Fiscal crisis due to continuous wars
- Breakdown of Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems
- Rise of regional powers
- Administrative corruption and inefficiency
- Weak successors
15. Conclusion (UPSC Mains-Oriented)
The Mughal administrative system was a remarkable blend of centralization, bureaucratic efficiency, and military organization. It played a crucial role in sustaining one of the largest empires in pre-modern India. However, its excessive dependence on the emperor, combined with structural weaknesses like the Jagirdari crisis and lack of institutional evolution, led to its gradual decline.
For UPSC CSE Mains, the Mughal administration should be analyzed not only in terms of its structure but also its functional efficiency, socio-economic impact, and long-term sustainability.
16. Value Addition for UPSC (Answer Writing Points)
- Use keywords: Centralization, Mansabdari, Jagirdari, Zabti, Dahsala, Sulh-i-Kul
- Quote historians like Irfan Habib (agrarian system) if needed
- Add comparison with Delhi Sultanate administration
- Include critical analysis (strengths vs weaknesses)
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